SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF EFFICIENCY AND MALMQUIST PRODUCTIVITY INDICES: AN APPLICATION TO SPANISH SAVINGS BANKS

Hypothesis testing and statistical precision in the context of nonparametric efficiency and productivity measurement have been investigated since the early 1990s. Recent contributions focus on this matter through the use of resampling methods?i.e., bootstrapping techniques. However, empirical evidence is still practically non-existent. This gap is more noticeable in the case of banking efficiency studies, where the literature is immense. In this paper, we explore productivity growth and productive efficiency for Spanish savings banks over the (initial) post-deregulation period 1992?1998 using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and bootstrapping techniques. Results show that productivity growth has occurred, mainly due to improvement in production possibilities, and that mean efficiency has remained fairly constant over time. The bootstrap analysis yields further evidence, as for many firms productivity growth, or decline, is not statistically significant. With regard to efficiency measurement, the bootstrap reveals that the disparities in the original efficiency scores of some firms are lessened to a great extent. Desde principios de los años noventa ha habido avances notables en el contraste de hipótesis dentro del contexto de la medición de la eficiencia y la productividad mediante técnicas paramétricas. Las contribuciones más recientes han enfocado el tema a través de métodos de remuestreo -conocidos en la literatura como técnicas bootstrap-. Sin embargo, prácticamente no ha habido aplicaciones, algo también patente en el estudio de la eficiencia de la empresa bancaria. En este artículo, analizamos la eficiencia productiva y el crecimiento de la productividad de las cajas de ahorro españolas durante el periodo 1992-1998 a través de técnicas no paramétricas (DEA) y de técnicas bootstrap, con el fin de poder realizar inferencia estadística. Los resultados indican que la productividad ha aumentado, principalmente debido a una mejora en las posibilidades de producción, mientras que la eficiencia promedio no ha variado sustancialmente. El análisis bootstrap revela que, en el caso de la productividad, para muchas empresas su aumento o disminución no es estadísticamente significativo. En cuanto a la eficiencia, muestra que las diferencias entre empresas individuales se reducen de manera notable cuando consideramos intervalos de confianza.bootstrap, data envelopment analysis, efficiency, productivity, savings bank bootstrap, técnicas no paramétricas, eficiencia, productividad, cajas de ahorro.

-CONVERGENCE IN EFFICIENCY OF THE SPANISH BANKING FIRMS AS DISTRIBUTION DYNAMICS

During the last fifteen years the competitive conditions under which Spanish banking firms operate have become much tighter. Deregulation has affected both banks and savings banks, allowing them to expand geographically and to choose a less regulation-conditioned output mix.This paper analyzes how, in these circumstances, banking efficiency has been affected considering two specifications of output and analyzing the dynamics of the entire distribution, not only mean and standard deviation. Results differ depending on the output definition, but they show that, in general, efficiency scores exhibit dynamic patterns that only two moments of the distribution hardly capture. In particular, regardless of the output definition considered, efficiency scores were more dispersed in 1985 and more concentrated in 1995. In addition, the multi-modality of the distributions has almost disappeared at the end of the period. Durante los últimos quince años las condiciones competitivas bajo las que operan las empresas bancarias españolas se han intensificado considerablemente. La desregulación ha afectado tanto a bancos como a cajas de ahorro, permitiendo la expansión geográfica de estas últimas así como la elección de una determinada especialización menos condicionada por la regulación. Este trabajo analiza cómo, en estas circunstancias, la eficiencia de las empresas bancarias se ha visto afectada, a través de dos aproximaciones del output bancario y analizando la dinámica de la totalidad de la distribución, no únicamente media y desviación típica. Los resultados difieren de acuerdo con las distintas aproximaciones al output pero muestran que, en general, los índices de eficiencia muestran patrones dinámicos que sólo dos momentos de la distribución no captan. En particular, e independientemente de la definición del output, los índicesde eficiencia estaban más dispersos en 1985 y más concentrados en 1995. Asimismo, la multimodalidad de las distribuciones prácticamente ha desaparecido al final del periodo analizado.Bancos, dinámica de la distribución, eficiencia en costes, estimación no paramética de la densidad, matriz de probabilidad de transición. Banking, distribution dynamics, cost efficiency, nonparametric density estimation, transition probability matrix.

-BANK COST EFFICIENCY AS DISTRIBUTION DYNAMICS: CONTROLLING FOR SPECIALIZATION IS IMPORTANT

This paper analyzes the dynamics of cost efficiency scores in the Spanish banking industry during the period 1985-1995 and asks how such dynamics are influenced by specialization. Efficiency has been estimated through a nonparametric approach, and a model of distributions dynamics has been applied to assess the evolution of efficiency scores over time. Results show that efficiency at industry level (mean efficiency) has increased importantly and that, considering how the entire distribution evolves, there are some important patterns that mean and standard deviation fail in uncovering, like multi-modality. In addition, controlling for each firm¿s output mix sheds mor light on efficiency dynamics, as efficiency scores tend to become closer much faster. El presente trabajo tiene por objeto el estudio de la dinámica de los índices de eficiencia en la industria bancaria española durante el periodo 1985-1995, así como la manera en que dicha dinámica se ve condicionada por la especialización. La eficiencia se estima a través de un enfoque no paramétrico, y se aplica un modelo de dinámica de las distribuciones para valorar la evolución de los índices de eficiencia en el tiempo. Los resultados indican que la eficiencia a nivel de industria (eficiencia media) se ha incrementado y que, considerando la evolución de la totalidad de la distribución, existen patrones importantes imposibles de detectar por la media y la desviación típica, como la multi-modalidad. Asimismo, condicionar por la especialización de cada empresa arroja más luz sobre la dinámica de la eficiencia, pues los índices tienden a aproximarse entre sí más rápidamente.Bancos, dinámica de la distribución, eficiencia-X, eficiencia en costes. Banking, distribution dynamics, X-efficiency, cost efficiency, product mix.

PRODUCT MIX OF THE SPANISH BANKING FIRMS: DO COMPETITION CLUBS EXIST?

The expansion and intensification of banking competition, which has occurred inSpain during the last ten years, has allowed banks and savings banks to define theircompetitive strategies with more freedom. This paper analyzes the similarities andthe differences in their product mix along with its time evolution. In particular, itattempts to identify the different kinds of firms and, on this ground, to analyze whethercompetition leads to the homogeneization (convergence) of product mixes betweenfirms or groups of firms (clubs). The empirical success is higher when specializationclubs are considered, finding increased heterogeneity within the banking system as awhole but increased homogeneity within certain clusters of banks and savings banks La expansión e intensificación de la competencia en el sector bancario ocurrida en España durante la última década ha permitido a bancos y cajas de ahorro definir sus estrategias competitivas con mayor libertad. Este artículo analiza las similitudes y diferencias en la especialización de las empresas bancarias y su evolución temporal. En particular, trata de identificar los distintos tipos de empresas y, a partir de ello, analizar si la competencia está condicionada o no por grupos (clubes) de competidores con especializaciones similares. Los resultados son superiores cuando se consideran clubes de especialización, obteniéndose heterogeneidad creciente para el conjunto del sistema bancario pero homogeneidad creciente dentro de ciertos grupos de bancos y cajas de ahorro.sector bancario, convergencia, especialización productiva banking, convergence, product mix

The determinants of international financial integration revisited: the role of networks and geographic neutrality

Over the last two decades, the degree of international financial integration has increased substantially, becoming an important area of research for many financial economists. This paper explores the determinants of the asymmetries in the international integration of banking systems. We consider an approach based on both network analysis and the concept of geographic neutrality. Our analysis focuses on the banking systems of 18 advanced economies from 1999 to 2005. Results indicate that banking integration should be assessed from the perspective of both inflows and outflows, given that they show different patterns for different countries. Using standard techniques, our results reinforce previous findings by the literature—especially the remarkable role of both geographic distance and trade integration. Nonparametric techniques reveal that the effect of the covariates on banking integration is not constant over the conditional distribution which (in practical terms) implies that the sign of the relationship varies across countries.banking integration, geographic neutrality, network analysis, nonparametric regression

Measuring International Economic Integration: Theory and Evidence of Globalization

This article features a set of indicators designed to measure international economic integration and globalization. We analyze the degree of openness and the respective networks of connections---both direct and indirect---for each economy in our sample. Our indicators are based on network analysis techniques and the exchange of flows among world economies. Starting from four basic axioms of international economic integration, we define the Standard of Perfect International Integration, along with the set of indicators for degree of openness and connectedness, both for each specific economy and for the world economy as a whole. We apply our indicators to data on trade flows for 59 countries---accounting for 96.7% of world output---for the 1967--2004 period. According to our results, international economic integration is higher than what traditional degree of openness indicators suggest. The advance of globalization is unequal among countries because of the differing trends in their degree of openness and the differences in the intensity with which economies are connected to each other. Several economies now appear to be internationally integrated; however, the relatively low degree of openness in some of the largest economies jeopardizes the progress of globalization. We also perform some simulations which suggest that, should technological progress lead to an increase in indirect connections, the move towards greater international economic integration would accelerate.International Economic Integration, Globalization, International Trade, Network Analysis

On the Dynamics of Globalization

How has the process of international economic integration advanced over the last four decades? How will the foreseeable future look like? We attempt to answer this sort of questions by considering some methods which have scarcely been used in the literature on globalization. First, we consider a set of indicators which measure not only the degree of openness of economies, but also how connected they are to each other, following Arribas et al. (2007). Second, we assess how these indicators have evolved over time, what the likely steady state distribution might be, and whether results differ depending on a variety of weighting schemes (GDP, population). Results show that, under current trends, the future world will be much more integrated, especially for the most heavily populated countries. However, there is still a long way to go before the Standard of Perfect International Integration can be achieved.International Economic Integration, Globalization, International Trade, Network Analysis, Distribution Dynamics

The distance puzzle revisited: a new interpretation based on geographic neutrality

One of the most remarkable features of globalization is the boost undergone by international trade triggered off by advances in technology that have contributed to reduce the cost of trade (e.g., transportation and communication costs). Under these circumstances, the importance of distance should have diminished over time, which would constitute a boon for countries located far from the main centers of economic activity. However, one of the best-established empirical results in international economics is that bilateral trade decreases with distance. This apparent contradiction has been labeled as the “missing globalization puzzle”. We propose yet another explanation to this apparent contradiction based on the concept of geographic neutrality, which we use to construct international trade integration indicators for two different scenarios, namely, when distance matters and when it does not. Our results indicate that the importance of distance varies greatly across countries, as revealed by disparate gaps between distance-corrected and distance-uncorrected trade integration indicators for different countries. Some factors rooted in the literature explain away the discrepancies, but their importance varies according to the trade integration indicator considered —trade openness or trade connection.Geographic Neutrality, Globalization, Gravity Models, Network Analysis, Remoteness

Can trust effects on development be generalized? A response by quantile

While the beneficial effects of social trust on economic performance have been largely recognized, we analyze whether these effects can be generalized for economies at different stages of economic development. Contrary to previous studies on this issue based on average effects (mostly considering ordinary least squares estimations), we follow a quantile regression approach that enables us to capture heterogeneous effects of trust for different development levels. By considering data for 80 countries, and using trust indicators from five different waves of the World Values Survey (WVS), our results by quantile indicate that trust is not relevant for the poorest economies, showing the existence of a social poverty trap. In addition, results suggest that the impact of trust on income decreases as an economy becomes richer. This would suggest not only that trust benefits cannot be generalized for all countries, as some previous studies have proposed, but also that the extent of its implications are heavily dependent on the level of development

Disentangling the European airlines efficiency puzzle: a network data envelopment analysis approach

© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. In recent years the European airline industry has undergone critical restructuring. It has evolved from a highly regulated market predominantly operated by national airlines to a dynamic, liberalized industry where airline firms compete freely on prices, routes, and frequencies. Although several studies have analyzed performance issues for European airlines using a variety of efficiency measurement methods, virtually none of them has considered two-stage alternatives - not only in this particular European context but in the airline industry in general. We extend the aims of previous contributions by considering a network Data Envelopment Analysis (network DEA) approach which comprises two sub-technologies that can share part of the inputs. Results show that, in general, most of the inefficiencies are generated in the first stage of the analysis. However, when considering different types of carriers several differences emerge - most of the low-cost carriers' inefficiencies are confined to the first stage. Results also show a dynamic component, since performance differed across types of airlines during the decade 2000-2010